Long‑term efect of municipal solid waste compost on the recovery of a potentially toxic element (PTE)‑contaminated soil: PTE mobility, distribution and bioaccessibility

Compost from municipal solid waste (MSWC) can represent a resource for the environmental management of soils contaminated with potentially toxic elements (PTEs), since it can reduce their mobility and improve soil fertility. However, the long-term impact of compost on soil recovery has been poorly investigated. To this end, the infuence of a MSWC added at diferent rates (i.e. 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5% w/w) to a multi-PTE-contaminated (e.g. Sb 412 mg kg−1, Pb 2664 mg kg−1 and Zn 7510 mg kg−1) sub-acidic soil (pH 6.4) was evaluated after 6 years since its addition. The MSWC signifcantly enhanced soil fertility parameters (i.e. total organic carbon, Olsen P and total N) and reduced the PTE labile fractions. The distribution maps of PTEs detected through µXRF analysis revealed the presence of Zn and Pb carbonates in the amended soils, or the formation of complexes between these PTEs and the functional groups of MSWC. A higher oral, inhalation and dermal bioaccessibility of each PTE was detected in the soil fne-grained fractions (<2 and 2–10 µm) than in coarse particles (10–20 and 20–50 µm). The MSWC amendment generally did not modify the PTE bioaccessibility, while the relative bioaccessibility of cationic PTEs was greater than that of anionic ones (e.g. Cd>Zn>Pb>Sb>As). Pb and Sb showed the highest hazard quotients (e.g. 2.2 and 10 for Sb and Pb, respectively, in children). Overall, the results indicated that the MSWC used can be an efective option for the recovery of PTE-contaminated soils, even in the long term.